Montesquieu cautioned in the Spirit of Laws (1748) that “unnecessary laws weaken necessary ones”. Spain’s Ley Orgánica 1/2025 (the “LO 1/2025”) illustrates this point. In pursuit of efficiency, LO 1…
Public order or public policy is a concept deeply entrenched in international arbitration, and its relationship with different national legal systems is a constant source of fascinating doctrinal and…
The Court of Justice of the European Union (“CJEU”) ruled in Komstroy (C-741/19, Sept., 2021) that the dispute resolution mechanism of the 1994 Energy Charter Treaty (“ECT”) does not apply to intra…
